Ecofeminism
(In
the Context of Indian holistic worldview)
In Western society women are treated as inferior
to men, 'nature' is treated as inferior to 'culture', and humans are understood
as being separate from, and often superior to the natural environment.
Throughout our history nature is portrayed as feminine and women are often
thought of as closer to nature than men. Women's physiological connection with
birth and child care have partly led to this close association with nature. The
menstrual cycle, which is linked to Lunar cycles, is also seen as evidence of women's
closeness to the body and natural rhythms. Our cultural image of the
'premenstrual woman' as irrational and overemotional typifies this association
between women, the body, nature and the irrational. Ecofeminists focus on these
connections, and analyses how they devalue and oppress both 'women' and
'nature'. Ecofeminism believes that Patriarchal society is built on four
interlocking pillars; sexism, racism, class exploitation and environmental
destruction. Ecofeminist analysis reveals that it's not only women who are
portrayed as being 'closer to nature'; oppressed races and social classes have
also been closely associated with nature. Ecofeminism has many phases
and faces, but one of the most influential is that of spiritual ecofeminism and
its man expressions under the New Age umbrella. In an Indian context the
picture seems to be different, as spiritual ecofeminism seems to be more
closely aligned with “traditional” Hinduism. Hindu text such as the Vedas and
Upanishads contain valuable information concerning Hindu ideas of the essential
nature of reality and the role of the earthly life within that reality and
other hand Shaktism is an important branch within the Hindu tradition that
involves the primary emphasis on goddess worship and the concept of Shakti and
that way we can say the Shakt tantra would be successful in establishing an
ecofeminism in Indian Hindu tradition.
Ø
A
brief history of Ecofeminism –
In
1974, the term “ecofeminism” was conceived by d’Eaubonne as a connection of the
ecology and women.[1]
Ecofeminism is a joining of environmental, feminist, and women’s spirituality
concerns.[2]As
the environmental movement along with environmental crises raised the
consciousness of women to the decay of the earth they began to see a parallel
between the devaluation earth and the devaluation of women. Women bagan to see
the link as not a false construction of
weakness, but as a strong unifying force that clarified the violation of
women and earth as part of same drama of male control. Ecofeminism as Karen
Warren notes is an umbrella term for a wide variety of approaches. One may be a
social ecofeminism, cultural ecofeminism, radical ecofeminism, ecowomenism etc.[3]
Although the categorization of ecofeminism is a contested point, as Karen
warren writes, “ there are important connections between the domination of
women and domination of Nature.[4]
Ecofeminist
activism grew during the 1980s and 1990s among women from the anti-nuclear,
environmental, and lesbian-feminist movements. The “womwn and life on on Earth:
Ecofeminism in the Eighties” conference held at Amherst was first in the series
of ecofeminist conferences, inspiring the growth of ecofeminist organizations,
conferences and actions were based on an assessment of critical links that were
though to exist between militarism, sexism, classism, racism and environmental
destruction.
Ø
Definitions
of Ecofeminism -
In
the first ecofeminist conference - 'Women and Life on Earth: A Conference on
Eco-Feminism in the Eighties' - in March 1980, at Amherst. At this conference
the connections between feminism and militarization, healing and ecology were
explored. As Ynestra King, one of the Conference organizers, wrote: 'Ecofeminism
is about connectedness and wholeness of theory and practice. It asserts the
special strength and integrity of every living thing. For us the snail darter
is to be considered side by side with a community's need for water, the
porpoise side by side with appetite for tuna, and the creatures it may fall on
with Skylab. We are a woman-identified movement and we believe we have a
special work to do in these imperilled times. We see the devastation of the
earth and her beings by the corporate warriors, and the threat of nuclear
annihilation by the military warriors, as feminist concerns. It is the
masculinist mentality which would deny us our right to our own bodies and our
own sexuality, and which depends on multiple systems of dominance and state
power to have its way.'
Wherever women acted against ecological
destruction or/and the threat of atomic annihilation, they immediately became
aware of the connection between patriarchal violence against women, other
people and nature, and that: In defying this patriarchy we are loyal to future
generations and to life and this planet itself. We have a deep and particular
understanding of this both through our natures and our experience as
women."[5]
Ø Three
connections of Ecofeminist theory-
Although a range of woman/nature interconnections are being
explored within ecofeminist thought and action, three connections seem central
to ecofeminist theory—the empirical, the conceptual and/or cultural/symbolic,
and the epistemological. The empirical claim is that in most parts of the world
environmental problems generally disproportionately affect women. The increased
burdens women face result not from environmental deterioration per se, but from
a sexual division of labor found in most societies that considers family sustenance
to be women’s work. It is increasingly difficult for women in such societies to
provide food, fuel, or water. Empirical data supports this claim.[6]
A second claim is that women and
nature are connected conceptually and/or culturally/symbolically. These
connections are articulated in several ways. Many agree with Ruether that
Western cultures present ideas about the world in a hierarchical and dualistic
manner that is lived out in the way the world is organized. The claim is that
dualist conceptual structures identify women with femininity, the body, Earth,
sexuality, and flesh; and men with masculinity, spirit, mind, and power.
Dualisms such as reason/emotion, mind/body, culture/nature, heaven/Earth, and
man/woman converge. This implies that men have innate power over both women and
nature. This dualistic structure was championed in the Greek world, perpetuated
by Christianity, and reinforced later during the scientific revolution. In this
cultural context, the twin dominations of women and nature seem justified and
appear “natural,” primarily because they are reinforced by religion,
philosophy, and other cultural symbols, networks, and constructions. Cultural
ecofeminists embrace goddess-oriented ecofeminism. Drawing from nature-based
religions, paganism, goddess worship, Native American traditions, and the
Wiccan tradition, some ecofeminists construct feminist spiritualities that they
view as being friendlier to nature and women than the patriarchial religious
traditions.[7]
The ecofeminist epistemological
claim follows from the connections noted between women and nature. The fact
that women are most adversely affected by environmental problems makes them better
qualified as experts on such conditions and therefore places them in a position
of epistemological privilege; that is, women have more knowledge about earth
systems than men. This means that these women are in a privileged position to
aid in creating new practical and intellectual ecological paradigms.[8]
Ø Three
Visions of Ecofeminism-
Ecofeminist Theory discuss three dimentional visions these
are 1) Spiritual 2) Environmental and 3) Feminist Vision. And these visions
linked together by a saga. While each vision decidedly results in a separate
strain of ecofeminist thought and action , they are linked together three
dimentionally under the saga of ecofeminism. Like –
SAGA
Devaluation of women and nature linked.
Men (via Patriarchal society, Western
development, etc.)
exploit, control, despoil women and earth for
gain.
Earth and its creatures are at point of crisis.
Need to change, create new consciousness
All live together in equality and harmony.
 |
Feminist
Vision
Women
and children are hurt most.
Humans are dependent upon the Earth for
survival.
Justice for all is the primary value.
Changes must be made now to protect women.
Localized action to stop immediate threats.
Spiritual Vision Environmental Vision
Earth and all life
forms
Earth is an ecosystem,
are sacred and must be preserved. where all life is connected together.
Humans must commune with Earth. Humans must live in balance with nature.
Primary value is spirituality. Primary value is balance/harmony.
Change must be made to reclaim past. Change must be made to insure future.
Discover Mother Earth and live in communion with her. Live in balance with nature, recycle.
are sacred and must be preserved. where all life is connected together.
Humans must commune with Earth. Humans must live in balance with nature.
Primary value is spirituality. Primary value is balance/harmony.
Change must be made to reclaim past. Change must be made to insure future.
Discover Mother Earth and live in communion with her. Live in balance with nature, recycle.
1)
Spiritual Vision –
The spiritual vision constructs the earth as a
sacred being known as the Goddess or Gaia. Starhawk portrays the dramatic scene
in broad strokes,
[O]ur primary
understanding [is] that the Earth is alive, part of a living cosmos. What that
means is that spirit, sacred, Goddess, God--whatever you want to call it--is
not found outside the world somewhere--it's in the world: it is the
world, and it is us. Our goal is not to get off the wheel of birth nor to be
saved from something. Our deepest experiences are experiences of connection
with the Earth and with the world.[9]
Those sharing the vision
undergo a sacred experiencing of the earth as they share and celebrate a
glorious past where women were valued equally with men.
Past. - Adherents to this
vision have shared an analogy that depicts the creation of the world as a
process of birth, just as women give birth daily.
Not bombs, not
explosions, not abhorrence; rather she sees the event for what it is, a birthing
moment, the Great Birth. The elementary particles rushed apart in their
trillion degree heat, yes, and became stars, yes, and all of this a swelling,
an egg, a mysterious engendering that is the root reality behind all the
various facts.[10]
The vision sees creation as a beautiful,
nurturing, intensely natural moment and one in which women continually engage.
Because women weave life like the earth was weaved, women have a unique unity
or special connectedness to the earth. In the past, that connectedness was
acknowledged and valued. Adherents share fantasies that dramatize an age that
5,000 years ago where the earth was a matriachate, based on the worship of the
Goddess. Women and men were equally valued. This golden age was a
"partnership society," where no one was dominated or dominator and
"diversity is not equated
with inferiority or superiority".[11]
Present - In developing
the present scene the dominator society is depicted as continuing without any
signs of stopping or slowing. In fact, the rush to development has put more and
more peoples and animals under its control and pushed the evergiving earth to
the point of crisis. There is some recognition of the crisis for people in
developing nations, but overall concern is for the animals of the world. All
life is connected; "the destinies of the oak trees and all the peoples of
the Earth are wrapped together"[12]. But more importantly is
that all life is sacred. The destruction of any living being is a disaster.
While
they are concerned about pollution, these women dramatize the loss of species,
the wearing of furs and feathers[13], and the needless death
of animals for food[14] as signs of the destruction of the earth. King
contends,
No part of living nature can ignore the extreme
threat to life on Earth. We are faced with worldwide deforestation, the
disappearance of hundreds of species of life, and the increasing pollution of
the gene pool by poisons and low-level radiation.[15]
The earth is being exploited and harmed but not
destroyed. The earth is eternal and is now entering into a "new
consciousness," which we must recognize and join .
2)
Feminist Vision-
The
main value of this vision is that of justice for all parties. While the present
world only allows justice for those who are in power, they conceive a world
where all people and their needs are equally valued.
Past. This
vision does not have a developed past. There is an implicit sense that in the
past humans were more connected with nature. They point to the developing
countries as examples of that connectedness and direct dependence on nature.
They argue that men were separated from nature by development and have
continued to widen the gap through further development. As a result, men
devalued nature and the natural. Women were also devalued and the patriarchal
society took hold, devaluing and exploiting the earth and women. The earth is
not, in this vision, innately living or sacred. The earth must be valued
because people are dependent upon it for life. All life on earth is linked
together; therefore, exploiting one life hurts all the others.
Present. Women are hurt most by the exploitation of the
earth because they are the most vulnerable in patriarchal society. The main
focus is on women who are more at risk because they suffer double oppression of
poverty, race, education, or nation. One such group that this vision recognizes
as primary victims of exploitation are women in developing countries. These
women are seen as the most vulnerable of the vulnerable and it is these women
who are being victimized more and more by Western development. Shiva's (1990)
contribution deals primarily with the problems of what she terms
"Maldevelopment." The argument is that Westernization actually
decreases the quality of life for women in developing countries. Traditional
agricultural methods are abandoned, cash crops which deplete the delicate
ecosystems are substituted for subsistence crops, and natural resources are
taken or destroyed. Men must move to the cities to obtain jobs, but it is the
women who are now left alone to work longer and harder to acquire less food and
needs for their children. As in the case of Somalia, the end result is mass
starvation. This vision sees women as worldwide victims of oppression fighting
for their very lives and the lives of their children. The focus is not on
saving trees, animals, or soil because it is sacred, but rather because it is
necessary for the survival of people. King writes,
Yet this is not a sentimental movement--lives
depend upon the survival of the forest. For most of the women of the world,
interest in preservation of the land, water, air, and energy is no abstraction
but a clear part of the effort to simply survive.[16]
While there is a great
concern in this vision for those in other countries, there is also a
recognition of similar practices that victimize women within our own country.
Quinby notes the
disproportionate incidence of cancer among the
poor who are forced to take jobs with greater risks of cancer, to live in
"cancer-prone cities," and who are least able to afford the
exorbitant costs of medical treatment. These conditions are exacerbated in
Blacks, falling the heaviest on Black women and children.[17]
These groups are also
the groups who have traditionally the least access to power in the patriarchal
system. This view holds that not only are these groups forced to work and live
in bad conditions while denied medical care, but patriarchal society strives to
make their lives worse. The areas where they live become the dumping grounds of
patriarchal industrialization. Nelson (1990) observes, that incinerators and dumps
are not built in the more affluent neighborhoods because those people have
political power and access; however, in poor neighborhoods, where most of the
people are renters, women and children, and have limited access to political
power, opposition is less of a threat.
This
vision depicts patriarchal society as operating with malicious forethought.
Their argument is that women and children who are poor are subject to these
living conditions, which are life shortening and threatening in order to keep
them in submission. They also argue that women become a scapegoat for those
exploiting the environment. Nelson observes,
Both the "fetal protection" approach
and the "toxic gender gap" perspective are scapegoats of a sort. They
allow environmental health to be a "women's problem," something women
are particularly vulnerable around and/or worried about. Women's "delicate
biology" and "fragile psychology" virtually become the cause of
the problem.[18]
When women are not
considered the scapegoat, they are used as a signal for polluted areas. Diamond
(1990) observes, "It has been argued that in an economy built upon a
growing trade in toxic material, drugs, and radiation, babies are the best
'canaries' we have--that pregnancy can provide a warning much like the canary
did for coal miners"[19]. This vision has a stronger notion
of women as direct victims of oppression struggling for their lives and of
humans as an important part of the world. King writes, "There is no point
in liberating people if the planet cannot sustain their liberated lives, or in
saving the planet by disregarding the preciousness of human existence not only
to ourselves but to the rest of life on Earth"[20]. The vision encompasses a
stronger sense of urgency and agency resulting in direct action rather than
creating a consciousness of communion with Mother Earth.
Action. Women are capable of taking and maintaining
strong stands against the further exploitation of the planet. King writes about
the Chipko Andolan (tree hugging) movement in India. Women
respond to developers bulldozing their forests by wrapping their bodies around
the trees. This act of bravery to save the trees is symbolic of the connection
of the trees to their lives.
Future. The goal of this vision is not the return to a
prehistory because it is seen as impossible and undesirable[21]. The goal is to develop a
healthy relationship with nature built around the needs of all peoples. King
speaks of a "stewardship of evolution," which would focus on the
continual and future needs of all humans.[22] The future requires a
creation of a new consciousness, where development and progress are not
necessarily good and where people and the quality of their lives is dominant.
3)
Evironmental Vision-
The prominent value in
this vision is living in balance or harmony with nature. Instead of exploiting
the ecosystem of the earth for our needs, we need to change our lives to live
within the system.
Past. There is an implicit belief that
the past was a time when people lived in balance with nature. People were
forced because of lives directly linked to the earth to value it and its
resources. The coming of development broke that link for many and the earth's
resources were exploited and the earth was wasted.
Present. The exploitation continues into the present,
especially in our throw-away society. In this vision, it is not that the earth
is sacred or that exploitation is harming people now. The focus of this vision
is the future. Once it is all used up, there will nothing left for future
generations.
The damage and waste
come about because of the dominant anthropocentric belief that the world was
created for man. This belief holds that God resides elsewhere and all of the
earth is man's domain. This view is drawn from the biblical creation story,
where God presents all the animals to Adam to name. Man then uses earth for his
gain. Zimmerman portrays a counter drama,
The huge quantities of poisonous industrial and
municipal wastes, the nuclear weapons, the destruction of the living Earth--all
are manifestations of what amounts to human self-worship. Having
"killed" God, humanity arrogated itself the Divine position in the
Great Chain of Being. Human beings became the origin and measure for all value,
truth, and meaning.[23] (p. 141).
Although, in this
fantasy, all humans are at fault, it is men who are primarily responsible and
men continue to act upon that belief in business, science, and technology.
Kheel (1990) uses hunting as an example. While granting that women hunt, she
constructs it as a male need to dramatically act out the conquest of nature.
The hunter may appreciate the beauty of nature, but only in the guise of being
built for his consumption.
In
the same way, this vision links violence toward women and violence toward the
earth. The dominant, patriarchal view holds that women, too, are created for
the consumption of men. Plant (1990) argues:
We have painfully seen that it is the same
attitude that allows violence toward us that also justifies the rape of the
Earth. Literally, the images are the same. We also know that we just as
capable, generally speaking, of enacting the same kind of behavior[24].
While it is men who are
responsible for the violence toward women, it is women and men alike who are
responsible for the waste of the earth. Women living out their lives in
developed society are responsible for the damage they inflict upon the Earth.
The images of the earth
are of devastation on an tragic level. The visions are almost hopeless. In
their dramatic construction of the present, one gets the idea that there is
little left to save, but they do look toward the future. Catherine Keller
contends, "Yet this apocalyptic sort of message would not be worth
repeating if it weren't also the case that there is still great life and
responsiveness in the Earth as well"[25].
Action. The action in this drama is based on the
following philosophical view:
Only by recognizing that humanity is no more,
but also no less, important than all other things on Earth can we learn to
dwell on the planet within limits that would allow other species to flourish
and to follow out their own evolutionary destiny.[26]
This consciousness is
dependent upon all developing the same sort of connection that women have to
nature. Human community must be rebuilt on mended relationships with the
natural world. The result is personal action focusing on living in balance with
nature to help save the planet.
The action is living on
the basis of the philosophy. Truly adapting to the needs of nature. This
bioregionalist attitude is embedded in the following fantasy theme by Plant:
Bioregionalism
means learning to become native to place, fitting ourselves to a particular
place, not fitting a place to our predetermined tastes. It is living within the
limits and the gifts provided by a place, creating a way of life that can be
passed on to future generations.[27]
Future. The future is dependent upon all adopting this
strategy of living with the Earth. We can fit into the ecosystem by recycling
resources and utilizing renewable resources. This can only come about through a
total change in consciousness. This vision, like the others, promotes an
entirely new way of life. Plant offers a vision of that future which would
result in an "egalitarian society--a society that would be based on the
full participation and involvement of women and men in the process of
adaptation and thus in the maintenance of healthy ecosystems"[28]. Disputes would be solved
on this basis.
Ecofeminist Saga-
These
three distinct visions are all linked together under an ecofeminist saga. The
consciousness created by sharing the saga includes the base fantasy themes and
types of each. The shared fantasies are based in the link between the
devaluation of women and nature by men. Men use this linked devaluation to
control, despoil, manipulate, and use women and nature for their gain. Western
development and industrialization have further separated man from nature, thus
continuing and exacerbating the exploitation of both women and nature. All
visions call for fundamental change, based in realigning values. In the new
egalitarian system, all are equal and no one is exploited for the gain of
another. All live together in harmony.
Ø
Ecofeminism in Vaidic Philosophy –
We could see the holistic world view in Indian Vedic Philosophy. Only
the concept of the form of the earth in the Rig-veda is most
fascinating. It is
mostly addressed
along with the heaven into a dual conception (Rodasi, Dyāvāpṛthivī).
There is one small hymn addressed to Pṛthivī, while
there are six hymns addressed to Dyāvāp̣ṛthivī. Pṛthivī is
considered the mother and Dyau is considered the father in the
Vedas, and they form a pair together. One of the most beautiful verse of
the Rig-veda says,’ Heaven is my
father, brother atmosphere is my navel, and the great earth is my mother.’[29]
Heaven and earth are parents : Mātara,
Pitara, Janitāra[30]
in union while separately called as father and mother They sustain
all creatures. They are parents of all gods. They are great (Mahī)
and widespread. Earth is described as a goddess in Rig-veda .
In the Atharvaveda the earth is described in
one hymn of 63 verses. This
famous hymn called as
Bhumisukta or Prithivisukta indicates the environmental
consciousness of Vedic seers. The seers appear to have advanced understanding
of the earth through this hymn . She is called Vasudhā for
containing all wealth, Hiraṇyavakṣā for having gold bosom and Jagatơ
Niveshanī for being abode of whole world. She is not for the different races of men alone but for other
creatures also[31].
She is called Viśvaṁbharā
because she is
representative of the universe. She is the only planet directly available for
the study of the universe and to realize the underlying truth. This is wide
earth which supports varieties of herbs, oceans, rivers, mountains, hills etc.
She has at places different colours as dark, tawny, white. She is raised at
some place and lowered at some places. The earth is fully responsible for our
food and prosperity. She is praised for her strength. She is served day and
night by rivers and protected by sky. The immortal heart of earth is in the
highest firmament (Vyoma). Her heart is sun. ‘She is one enveloped by
the sky or space and causing the force of gravitation. She is described as
holding Agni. It means she is described as the geothermal field. She is also
described as holding Indra i.e., the
geomagnetic field. The earth is described then as being present in the middle
of the oceans (sedimentary rocks) and as one having magical movements'[32].
The hymn talks about different energies
which are generated from the form of the earth.—‘O Pṛthivī! thy centre, thy navel, all forces that have issued from thy
body- Set us amid those forces; breathe upon us.’[33]
Thus, the earth holds almost all the secrets of nature, which will help us in
understanding the universe. She is invested with divinity and respected as
mother - ’The earth is my mother and I am Her son’.[34]
The geographical demarcations on this earth have been made by men and not by
nature.
Durring
early vedic times women received equal treatment, as some of the Vedic hymns
describe events attributed to women,like - apālā, Ghoṣā Viśvavārā, āṁbhṛṇī. That way we can say that Vedās are promote ecofeminist attitudes.
Ø
Hindu
Śaktism,
Tantra and Ecofeminism –
Śaktism
is an important branch within the Hindu tradition that involves a primary
emphasis on goddess worship and the concept of śakti.
Not only does the Śākta tradition provide a prominent place for the feminine
principle, but but the śākta tantra reinterprets the traditional hierarchical system which
exists in Hinduism in favour of non-dualist concepts.[35]
Śakti May simply be translated as power or more specifically
interpreted, as “ability, capacity, faculty, strength, energy, prowess; regal
power; the power of composition, poetic power, genius”. Within the śākta
tradition the goddess is worshipped in a variety of forms and appreciated for
her multiplicity. In śākta tantra women are perceived as being the goddess in human form
and welcome, even necessary parts of religious rituals.
Ø
Conclusion
–
The new paradigm , we can
say a holistic worldview, seeing the world as an integrated whole rather than a
dissociated collection of parts. It may also be called an ecological view,, if
the term ecological is used in a much broader and deeper sense then usual. Deep
ecological awareness recognizes the fundamental interdependence of all
phenomena and the fact that, as individuals and societies, we are all embedded
in the cyclical processes of Nature.The term ‘ecological’ is associated with a
specific philosophical school and moreover, with a global grassroots movement,
known as ‘Deep Ecology’, which is rapidly gaining prominence. The pholosophycal
school was founded by Arne Naess in the early seventies with his distinction
between ‘shallow’ and ‘Deep’ ecology. This distinction is now widely accepted
as a very useful term for reffering to a major division within contemporary
environmental thought. Shallow ecology is anthropocentric, or human- centred
but Deep ecology is Nature- centred. It does see the world not as a collection
of isolated objects but as a network of phenomena that are fundamentally
interconnected and interdependent. Deep ecology recognizes the intrinsic value
of all living beings and views humans as just one particular strand in the web
of life. In addition to deep ecology, there is another important philosophical school of
ecology that is feminist ecology or ecofeminism. It is not us much about the
cultural characteristics and patterns of social organization that have brough
about the current ecological crisis. Ecofeminism could be viewed as a special
school of social ecology, since it too addresses the basic dynamics of social
domination within the contet of patriarchy.[36]
Ecofeminists point out that the exploitation of nature, in particular, has gone
hand in hand with that women, who have been identified with nature throughout
the ages.This nancient association of women and nature links women’s history
and the history of the environment, and is the source of a natural kinship
between feminism and ecology. Accordingly, ecofeminists see female experiential
knowledge as a major source for an ecological vision of reality. And hindu text
such as Vedas ,Upanishads and Shakti tantra contain valuable information about
female principles and environmental ethic.
Endnotes -
[1] Morgan, J.,Ecofeminism an emerging social movement. Unpublished Plan B paper,
Antropology Department,University of Mannesota,Maneapolis,MN, 1992, ,p.4.
[2] Sprentnak, C., Ecofeminism: Our
roots and flowering. In I. diamond & G.F. Orenstain(Eds.), Reweaving the world : The emergence of
ecofeminism, San Francisco : Sierra Club Books, 1990, p.5-6.
[3] Karen Warren, ed., Ecological feminist Philosophies,
Bloomington,ind : University of Indiana Press, 1996,p.10
[4]
Ibid.
[6] Rosi Bradiotti,et al., Women the Environment, and Sustainable
Development: Towards a Theoretical Synthesis, London : Zed Books,1994.
P.13-14.
[7] Rosemary, Redford Ruether.(ed.), Women Healing Earth : Third World Women on
Ecology, Feminism And Religion, Maryknoll,N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1996.p.4.
[8]
Vandana, Shiva., Staying Alive :
Women, Ecology and Development , London : Zed Books, 1989, p.23.
[9] Starhawk. (1990). Power, authority, and mystery: Ecofeminism and
Earth-based spirituality. In I. Diamond & G. F. Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving
the world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp. 73-86). San Francisco:
Sierra Club Books.p.73.
[10] Swimme, B. (1990). How to heal of lobotomy. In I. Diamond & G.
F. Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving the world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp.
15-22). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books,p.181.
[11] Eisler,
R. (1990). The Gaia tradition and the partnership future: An ecofeminist
manifesto. In I. Diamond & G. F. Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving the
world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp. 23-34). San Francisco: Sierra
Club Books.p.29.
[12] Swimme,B.,(1990),P.22.
[13] Ibid,P.15.
[14] Abbott,
S. (1990). The origins of God in the blood of the lamb. In I. Diamond & G.
F. Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving the world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp.
35-40). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.p.39.
[15] Ibid,p.106.
[16] King,
Y. (1990). Healing the wounds: Feminism, ecology, and the nature/culture
dualism. In I. Diamond & G. F. Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving the
world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp. 106-121). San Francisco:
Sierra Club Books,p.118.
[17] Quinby, L. (1990). Ecofeminism and the politics
of resistance. In I. Diamond & G. F. Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving
the world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp. 122-127). San Francisco:
Sierra Club Books,p.125
[18] Nelson, L. (1990). The place of women in polluted places. In I.
Diamond & G. F. Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving the world: The
emergence of ecofeminism (pp. 173-188). San Francisco: Sierra Club
Books.p.182.
[19] Diamond, I. & Orenstein, G. F. (Eds.).
(1990). Reweaving the world: The emergence of ecofeminism. San
Francisco: Sierra Club Books.p.210.
[21] Ibid,p.120.
[22] Ibid,p.120.
[23] Zimmerman, M. E. (1990).
Deep ecology and ecofeminism: The emerging dialogue. In I. Diamond & G. F.
Orenstein (Eds.), Reweaving the world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp.
138-154). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.p.141.
[24] Plant, J. (1990). Searching for common ground:
Ecofeminism and bioregionalism. In I. Diamond & G. F. Orenstein
(Eds.), Reweaving the world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp.
155-164). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.p.159.
[25] Keller, C. (1990). Women against wasting the
world: Notes and eschatology and ecology. In I. Diamond & G. F. Orenstein
(Eds.), Reweaving the world: The emergence of ecofeminism (pp.
249-263). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books,p.249.
[27] Plant, J. (1990).p.158.
[28]
Ibid,p.159.
[32] S.R.N. Murthy, Vedic View of the
Earth , D.K. Printworld , Delhi, 1997, p.87.
[33] Te madhyaṁ pṛthivī yacca nabhyaṁ yāsta ūrjȧstanvaḥ sambabhūvuḥ| Tāsu
no dhehi abhi naḥ pavasva||
-Atharvaveda , 12.1.12.; RTH Griffith, The Hymns of the Atharvaveda,
D.K. Publishers, Delhi, 1995, Vol.II , p.95.
Namastasyai Namastasyai, Namastasyai Namơnamaḥ||- Durgā saptaśatī, 5.34.
[36] Capra , Frijof., The Web of life , London : Flamingo
Publishers, 1998.p.6-9.
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